The E-Bike city designing sustainable streets
The transport sector must reduce its carbon footprint by at least 59% by 2050 (IPCC, 2022). It is also under pressure to reduce its other negative externalities, such as accidents, noise, and extensive usage of
public space (Moreno et al., 2021). At the same time, investments in better road infrastructure generate economic value through accessibility improvements but also lead to induced traffic (Hymel et al.,
2010; Hymel, 2019; Great Britain Department of Transport, 1994; Duranton and Turner, 2011). This trend is further amplified by population growth (UN, 2019) and increasing wealth (Steffen et al., 2015).
The global population in cities is expected to grow by 58% from 2018 to 2050. Most of this growth will happen in less developed regions (UN, 2019), often with weak institutional practices of spatial and
transport planning. The vast majority of surface-bound passenger travel is using private cars, most often occupied by solo drivers (BFS and ARE, 2023), resulting in high energy consumption, substantial negative externalities, and carbon emissions (ITF, 2020). Globally, the mode share of private cars is estimated at 71% of passenger kilometers (PKM) in urban areas (Aguiléra and Grébert, 2014). Even in Switzerland and the Netherlands, despite a relatively robust supply of alternatives, the mode share of private cars accounts
for roughly 69% and 71% of PKM, respectively (BFS and ARE, 2023; KiM, 2022).
Car driving is further perpetuated by building codes requiring a generous provision of (uncharged) parking, making all tenants and homeowners involuntarily pay for the car-centric transport system (Shoup, 2005). At the same time, this reduces the supply of commercial and residential space, particularly in North America, where parking typically consumes around 5% of total urban land to provide 2.5 to 3 parking spaces per vehicle (Davis et al., 2010). Since the COVID-19 pandemic, the “new normal” has further exacerbated already existing challenges. A study in Switzerland has shown that road traffic volumes have quickly returned to their prepandemic levels (Molloy et al., 2021). At he same time, falling transit ridership, partially paralleled by growing car ownership, poses fiscal challenges to transit agencies (Basu and Ferreira, 2021). Recent studies suggest an increased preference for solo driving over more sustainable collective modes (Abdullah et al., 2021; Basu and Ferreira, 2021; Das et al., 2021). Less regular commuting may further reduce revenues from season tickets (Axhausen, 2020). Policymakers need to
find new ways of securing transit financing and managing road traffic volumes.
Although much hope has been placed on the technical progress of battery-electric vehicles (BEV) to mitigate climate change, realistic scenarios show that this will not decarbonize transport quickly and strongly enough (de Blas et al., 2020; Gebler et al., 2020). BEVs still produce substantial greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions throughout their lifecycle and do not address many other negative externalities of traffic, including accidents or the excessive use of space. As of 2020, the lifecycle CO2 emissions of private BEVs were only roughly 25% lower compared to vehicles with internal combustion engines (ICE) (ITF, 2020). Depending on the exact vehicle model and the location where the vehicle is charged, many BEVs in the US currently produce more emissions than equivalent hybrid-electric vehicles (Singh et al., 2024). Cox et al. (2018) estimate that future BEVs may generate lifecycle GHG emissions of 45 to 78% of today’s values,
although parts of the necessary technologies are still in the prototype stage (IEA, 2021). Moreover, ongoing technical progress in electric vehicles will likely decrease the generalized cost of driving below the current levels, thus inviting additional demand (Wang et al., 2021). While the lifecycle costs of BEV and ICE vehicles are approximately equal today (Verma et al., 2022), falling battery costs will make BEVs cheaper (Schmidt et al., 2017).
Temukan peta dengan kualitas terbaik untuk gambar peta indonesia lengkap dengan provinsi.
