Compact City Planning and Development. Emerging practices and strategies for achieving the goals of sustainability
Compact cities have, since the early 1990s, been one of the leading global paradigms of sustainable urbanism. In the European Union Green Paper of the Urban Environment, the compact city model was advocated as the most sustainable approach to urbanism (CEC, 1990). A number of recent UN–Habitat reports and policy papers argue that the compact city model has positive effects on resource efficiency, economy, citizen health, social cohesion, and cultural dynamics (UN–Habitat, 2011, Habitat, 2014a, Habitat, 2014b, Habitat, 2014c, Habitat, 2015). Indeed, according to many studies (e.g., Arbury, 2005; Burton, 2002; Bibri, 2020a, b; Bibri and Krogstie, 2017b; Hofstad, 2012; Jabareen, 2006; Næss et al., 2011; Newman and Kenworthy, 1999; Williams et al., 2000), the compact city can promote sustainability by reducing the amount of travel and shortening commute time; decreasing car dependency; lowering per capita rates of energy use; limiting the consumption of building and infrastructure materials; mitigating pollution; maintaining the diversity for choice among workplaces, service facilities, and social contacts; and limiting the loss of green and natural areas. This is justified by the fact that the compact city emphasizes the intensification of development and activities, creates limits to urban growth, encourage land use and social mixes, and focuses on the importance of public transportation and the quality of urban design. All in all, the compact city harnesses the advantages of agglomeration and taps into the tremendous variety of environmental, economic, and social benefits it has to offer through proper planning and development.
The benefits of the compact city, as research from around the globe suggests, are far from certain or not guaranteed as desired outcomes. This relates to the issues argued against by the critics of the compact city model that should be addressed so that it can gain in more popularity. By and large, most of these issues pertain to the unforeseen consequences and unanticipated effects of the compact urban form that fall under what is called in urban planning” wicked problems” a term that has gained more currency in urban policy analysis after the adoption of sustainable development within urban planning since the early 1990s. These issues are often overlooked as a result of failing to approach this urban system from a holistic perspective, or of treating it in too immediate and simplistic term. Ritter and Webber (1973), the first to define the term, associate wicked problems with urban planning, arguing that the essential character of wicked problems is that they cannot be solved in practice by a central planner. Wicked problems are so complex and dependent on so many factors that it is hard to grasp what exactly the problem is or how to tackle it.
In addition, in the current climate of the unprecedented urbanization and increased uncertainty of the world, it may be more challenging for cities in developed countries to configure themselves more sustainably. The predicted 70% rate of urbanization by 2050 (United Nations, 2015) reveals that the sustainability of the urban environment will be a key factor in the global resilience to the forthcoming changes. This implies that the city governments in these countries will face significant challenges related to environmental, economic, and social sustainability due to the issues engendered by urban growth. These include increased energy consumption, pollution, toxic waste disposal, resource depletion, inefficient management of urban infrastructures and facilities, ineffective planning processes and decision–making systems, poor housing and working conditions, saturated transport networks, endemic congestion, social inequality, and socio-economic disparity (Bibri, 2019a; Bibri and Krogstie, 2017a), In a nutshell, urban growth raises a variety of problems that tend to jeopardize the sustainability of cities as it puts an enormous strain on urban systems and great demand on natural resources. Furthermore, cities in developed countries are likely to experience an even more rapid decline in average densities through more sprawling patterns, reducing the ability of city–regions to support themselves, unless they adopt and pursue more compact development strategies.
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